Ziba, married at age 15, grasps at any claim she can make to pursue a divorce, including insanity on the part of her husband

Divorce, Muslim Style

"Divorce Iranian Style", directed by Kim Longinotto and Ziba Mir-Hosseini, is an expository documentary about the realities of divorce in Iran. Mir-Hossein and Longinotto were granted permission to film in a divorce court in Tehran; their film in particular shows the difficulties Iranian women face when trying to get a divorce. In her chapter “Rewriting Divorce in Egypt: Reclaiming Islam, Legal Activism, and Coalition Politics”, Singerman explains that in Egypt and in the Middle East in general, men have the unilateral right to divorce while it is much more difficult for women, who have to prove “harm” in some way, whether by desertion, imprisonment, sterility, or mental insanity. A number of cases in the film show women desperately trying to grasp at one of these reasons in order to divorce their husbands. Ziba, a schoolgirl who was married off by her parents at the age of 15, is searching desperately to the claim that her husband is insane and insists that he must be subject to a medical test.

Despite the restrictions women face under sharia, Islamic law, efforts have been made to reform family law, including divorce. Annelies Moors writes about the political change throughout the Muslim world in the 1990s that led to the ability to publicly discuss family law reform. Throughout the Muslim world, including Morocco, Mali, Yemen and Palestine, debates over family law were beginning to take place. Singerman looks specifically at Egypt, which passed the “Law on Recognition of Certain Terms and Procedures of Litigation in Personal Status Matters” in January 2000 and the coalition of “activists, lawyers, government officials, civic leaders, legislators and scholars” that pushed it through the courts (Singerman 162). She believes that without the help of lawyers and legal activists, it could not have passed.

Kecia Ali takes a strong stance on the issue of family law reforms, and I find her fascinating and compelling. She specifically focuses on the history of Islamic jurisprudence and believes that “there is not now, nor has there ever been, a single, unitary Islamic law” (Ali 167). While the Quran talks about dowry, polygamy, and certain paths to divorce, the regulations around marriage largely stem from sharia, which is interpretation. This role of human agency is key because it makes interpretation not divine, and therefore cannot be unilaterally applied.

In the film, the young daughter of the court secretary, Paniz, visits the court every day after school. My favorite part of the film is when she sits up in the judge’s seat and begins acting out an imaginary scene in front of her. She scolds invisible men for not treating their wives correctly and later, says she doesn’t want to marry because of what she has seen in court.

All of these different images of divorce in Islam paint a complicated and tumultuous picture. While some authors focus on the politics of divorce, such as Moors and Singerman, others, like Ali, analyzes the family law code as representative of the larger patriarchal system of marriage in Islam. "Divorce Iranian Style" adds visual images to the debate: the bureaucracy of the courts and the struggles of the women are powerful. Jamileh, whose husband was spending days at a time outside the home, supposedly with another woman, ends her segment by saying “if I respect him, he should respect me.” And Westerners should begin to respect the complexities that lie within Islamic jurisprudence.

The Veil.

It's impossible to look at issues of gender in the Middle East without addressing the veil; it is a visible sign manipulated by all different interest groups, organizations, political orientations, as well as outsiders, to boost an argument or prove a point. This week, amid blizzards and snowstorms of historic proportions in Washington, DC, I headed to the Middle East through readings by Leila Ahmed, Amira El-Azhary Sonbol, Feber Armanios and Homa Hoodfar, to look at this polemic and fascinating issue that is the veil and its representation.
Leila Ahmed, as always, takes a unique historical approach to analyzing the veil and its implications. She reminds the readers how colonial powers used the veil as a visual representation of the supposed degradation of women. As we saw in Hollywood Harems, a film by Tania Kamel Eldin, Middle Eastern women were portrayed in Hollywood as an indiscriminate group of all characteristics Chinese, Persian, Indian, as well as Arab. Furthermore, these women were often portrayed either as slaves or concubines. One aspect of these early Hollywood films I found particularly interesting was how the veil was used by the "saviors", typically Western men, to liberate these poor Arab women. The veil was often ripped off of these women's faces, revealing beautiful, and of course, grateful smiles beneath. Ahmed believes that this representation of the veil by colonial powers ignores the veil's other meaning, its "sign of propriety and a means of protection against the menacing eyes of male strangers" (Ahmed 11). Even in the contemporary Middle East today, women I know who work outside the home, control their own finances, and lead lives independent of their husbands, use the veil in public as a means of protection and seclusion from unknown males.
Sonbol's article looks at the legal system of Jordan and the injustices it poses to gender issues. A women, supposedly equal under the constitution, still requires a male guardian to stand by her in marriage, is denied full legal competence by the law, and can be denied access to work outside the home without permission of a guardian (usually father or husband.) She looks at the sources of Jordanian law to better understand this quandry, focusing on Islamic, tribal, European, and international law. She concludes that while Jordan's personal status law, like many other Muslim countries, is based on sharia, it is difficult to change with regard to gender because of its origins in the Quran and the Hadith. She also believes that there are large discrepancies between theory and application of this law.
Armanios looks at Coptic Christian society and the 6 million Coptic Orthodox Christians who live in Egypt. She examines the two representations of the female prototype, one as the wife/mother, who is the spiritual guardian of the family, and the other as the virgin/saint. The Virgin Mary is unique among women, because of her position as both a Mother and a Virgin. While I found the article interesting, I had never studied anything about the Coptic Orthodox community, I did not exactly see its relevance to the topic of the veil we were studying this week.
I did, however, enjoy Hoodfar's article, especially how she pointed out the history of the veil prior to Islam, that it was an honor reserved for upper class women. I think this point, along with Ahmed's article about the use of the veil as protection for women, poses some very interesting questions about the role of the veil during colonialism and its position among women during liberation and suffrage.

Representing Islamic Women

As we can see, Muslim women are not homogenous. Miss Indonesia Universe 2006 sported a bikini during the competition, challenging the widely accepted stereotype that Muslim women are veiled, suppressed, and dominated by men.

There are, however, many Muslim women who do chose to veil. While this is often a personal choice, is it important to remember that Muslim women are not always in need of liberation.

Women in the Middle East: Representation through Storytelling and Cinema The theme of this week’s readings, “Representation, Historicized” dug us eve

The theme of this week’s readings, “Representation, Historicized” dug us even deeper into the issues of representation of women in the Middle East through history, storytelling, and of course, cinema. Different authors from different backgrounds, including historical, cinematic, and fictional, introduced us to a number of different analytical ways of looking at these issues.
A major trend in Orientalist discourse, according to Lina Khatib, is the manipulation of the representation of women to be used as a national symbol. For example, in Egyptian cinema, women are portrayed as a virtuous, virginal females that pose no threat to existing patriarchical system. Particularly in Egyptian films, the “other”, mainly Israel and the U.S., are shown as sexually permissive, and as a stark contrast to the virtuous Arab women, which depeens the virgin/whore dichotomy. In Palestine, the representation of women as a national symbol is also linked to freedom for the Palestinian people; if the woman is liberated, so too is Palestine.
In her essay “We’ll Talk Later”, Rhoda Kanaaneh, Palestinian scholar and author of Birthing the Nation: Strategies of Palestinian Women in Israel (2002) looks at the tradition of oral history in Palestinian communities as it relates to the struggles of women. Feminine sexuality is so formally suppressed in that society that once the main character of her story is revealed as a female, after hiding under a cover of masculinity, “her femininity is discovered and she becomes a possession once again” (Kanaaneh p 271).
Donmez-Colin also looks at violence against women particularly with regard its representation in cinema. In her chapter, “Violence Against Women and the Politics of Rape”, she analyzes several films, mainly Turkish and Iranian, in order to better understand the far-reaching effects of violence against women that occur inside and outside of the family unit. She mentions conjugal violence, revenge-motivated rape, honor killings, trafficking of girls and women and masculine domination of female relatives, all as being relevant in a discussion about human rights as well as cinematic expression.
And while most of the information is hard to absorb, Trin Minh-ha, author of Women, Native, Other, quotes Audre Lorde to offer some consoling words: “Survival is not an academic skill… it is learning how to take our differences and make them strengths. For the master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house.” (Minh-ha, p. 80). So while representation of women in Islam, whether through oral history, written text, or cinema, may have some strides to make, survival lies in focusing on individuality and allowing that to guide us.

Sheikha Stories and Women in Islamic History

For the second week of class, we delved into the past, looking at women in the history of Islam and how it pertains to cinema. Having studied Islam as a subject in previous classes, I was interested to revisit the material with a gendered lens. We watched Sheikha Stories, a collection of short documentary pieces directed by Brigid Maher about women across the Arab world who are involved in teaching Islam and religious studies, and complimented the information provided by Leila Ahmed from her book, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of Modern Debate.
In her chapter “Women and the Rise of Islam” Ahmed discusses the different roles of the wives of the Prophet Mohammed and how through the various marriage practices we see the role of women shifting. While Mohammed was monogamous with Khadija, his first wife and the first convert to Islam, following her death he married multiple women at a time, his favorite being Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr, his most ardent supporter. In Sheikha Stories, a number of the sheikhas often look back to this earlier time and point to the wives of Mohammed, particularly Aisha, has having taught both men and women about Islam. Aisha also provided around 2,000 Hadith, or sayings of the Prophet, which still contribute to Islamic jurisprudence until today.
The issues of the veil, polygamy, and divorce are also discussed by Ahmed, and Sheikha Stories offers a counterpart to the historical data. In the piece “Magda’s Calling”, Magda Amer, a trained caller and teacher of Islam, teaches her students about women’s inheritance, an often-contested issue in the West with regard to the Muslim world. One of Amer’s students remarks that she feels a purpose when there is “more knowledge, more faith.” A trained doctor and professor of immunology, Amer describes her teaching method as one part scientific, one part religious.
All of the women in Sheikha Stories are extraordinary intellectuals and scholars, but Viola Shafik, author of Popular Egyptian Cinema, explains that female representation in cinema has faced enormous conflicts throughout history, and it is refreshing that filmmakers such as Brigid Maher are dedicated to portraying Muslim women in films. Shafik believes that even when feminist films began in Egypt, access to them was limited by class and profession. Furthermore, in the 1970s and 1980s, women were mostly portrayed as adjuncts to men, and when they had professions it was out of economic necessity or for fun. She believes that this is a reflection of society; at independence, Egyptian women were at odds with men over the right to vote.
Sheikha Stories has a few examples of the sheikhas relationships with men. Amer’s husband, for example, is interviewed saying that all that Amer does is for god (Allah), and therefore he supports her fully in her teaching. In the story “Mosque of Light”, the male director talks about how over 100 female instructors teach about 20 classes a week, with the curriculum ranging from religious studies to history, geography, math, and foreign languages such as English and French. In “Ladies of Brilliance”, the female professors at Al-Azhar University in Cairo emphasize that there is no difference in the quality of education that men and women receive.
And while none of the subjects, nor authors such as Ahmed, Shafik, or Sonbol, who discusses women’s lack of opportunity in a Jordanian village, argue that gender equality has been achieved, the examination of the role of women throughout Islam as well as the strides that individual scholars and sheikhas are making is certainly noteworthy.

Afghanistan Unveiled: Women in Islamic Cinema

When addressing the issue of women in the Middle East, analyzing gender and its representation is an important issue. Universal comparisons are not a useful tool when doing such, and according to Diane Singerman, the “question of women” has often been used to legitimize intervention by colonial powers. Many times these Western powers, formerly Europe and increasingly the United States, are not women’s rights activists in their own country, and yet use the supposed struggle of women in the Middle East as an excuse for intervention. Afghanistan plays a key role in this debate, and an extraordinary film, Afghanistan Unveiled, shows how the supposed “question of women” must be addressed within a thoughtful historical debate. As Singerman proposes in her chapter, “Gender and Politics”, from the book Politics and Society of the Contemporary Middle East, patriarchy, like many other issues, has a foundation in history; therefore, it can have a historical end.
In 2002, a group of young female journalists filmed the experiences of women in Afghanistan, which was experiencing the aftershock of the Taliban’s departure. For the first time in Afghani history, women were allowed to interview and film other women about the hardships of their lives, the difficulties of having lost loved ones, and the economic challenges they face every day. The documentary is eye opening and riveting, both about the opportunities allowed for women in Kabul and the lack thereof that are available to most women in the countryside. Seeing as the film was shot extremely recently following the end of the Taliban’s regime, these experiences are fresh in the collective memory of the women portrayed in the film, which makes it even more accurate.
The shocking difference between the metropolitan women and the powerless women of the more rural areas is a stark reality very accurately portrayed in the film. It is clear from the access to education, travel, and equipment, as well as social cues such as dress and language that the journalists belong to a far higher socioeconomic status than most of their subjects, who are often rural and uneducated. One woman tells an emotional story about how a man wanted her for marriage, and when she refused, she was forced to go into hiding. She weeps as she expresses her strongest desire- to study and receive an education; however, she is too scared to even leave her house. The chaduri, full-length veil covering the entire body and face, is another key point in the film; it is representative of the larger social and class issues that are at play. One of the journalists remarks that when she traveled to Jalalabad, she is the only woman in the street and is the only woman they encounter who does not wear the chaduri.
While issues regarding women’s rights are obviously critical when looking at the Middle East, Singerman reminds her readers that men in the region also have limited political rights, due to the monarchical structure of many of those societies. When looking at women’s role in Islamic cinema, Donmez-Colin looks at the history of women as subjects, viewers, and finally filmmakers themselves in Islamic societies. In Iran, for example, only non-Muslim women were portrayed until 1933, and until today the defintion of women’s value is directly linked to the representation of her sexuality. And while these issues are of grave importance, Afghanistan Unveiled is a powerful and moving documentary that shows the strength of women in Afghanistan as representing women all over the Middle East in overcoming obstacles and demanding representation.